{"id":3991,"date":"2017-01-31T15:19:52","date_gmt":"2017-01-31T13:19:52","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/?p=3991"},"modified":"2024-11-21T15:25:20","modified_gmt":"2024-11-21T13:25:20","slug":"cka-eshte-logjika","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/sr\/kritike\/cka-eshte-logjika\/","title":{"rendered":"\u00c7ka \u00ebsht\u00eb logjika?"},"content":{"rendered":"
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A \u00ebsht\u00eb t\u00eb menduarit logjik m\u00ebnyr\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb zbuluar apo p\u00ebr t\u00eb debatuar? P\u00ebrgjigjet nga filozofia dhe matematika p\u00ebrkufizojn\u00eb dijen njer\u00ebzore<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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Historia e logjik\u00ebs duhet t\u00eb jet\u00eb me interes p\u00ebr k\u00ebdo q\u00eb aspiron drejt t\u00eb menduarit q\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb korrekt, apo t\u00eb pakt\u00ebn i arsyesh\u00ebm. Ky ese ilustron qasjet e ndryshme ndaj k\u00ebrkimit intelektual dhe njohjes njer\u00ebzore m\u00eb n\u00eb p\u00ebrgjith\u00ebsi. T\u00eb reflektuarit mbi historin\u00eb e logjik\u00ebs na detyron t\u00eb reflektojm\u00eb mbi at\u00eb se \u00e7far\u00eb do t\u00eb thot\u00eb t\u00eb jesh nj\u00eb agjent kognitiv i arsyesh\u00ebm, se si t\u00eb mendosh si duhet. A do t\u00eb thot\u00eb kjo q\u00eb t\u00eb p\u00ebrfshihesh n\u00eb diskutim me t\u00eb tjer\u00ebt? A do t\u00eb thot\u00eb q\u00eb t\u00eb mendosh p\u00ebr vete? A do t\u00eb thot\u00eb q\u00eb t\u00eb b\u00ebsh p\u00ebrllogaritje?<\/p>\n

Te\u00a0Kritika e Arsyes s\u00eb Kulluar [Critique of Pure Reason]\u00a0<\/em>(1781), Immanuel Kant deklaronte se q\u00eb nga koha e Aristotelit nuk qe b\u00ebr\u00eb asnj\u00eb progres n\u00eb logjik\u00eb. Prandaj ai konkludon se logjika e koh\u00ebs s\u00eb tij kishte arritur pik\u00ebn e p\u00ebrfundimit. Nuk kishte m\u00eb pun\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb b\u00ebr\u00eb. Dyqind vjet m\u00eb von\u00eb, pas zhvillimeve marramend\u00ebse t\u00eb shekujve 19 dhe 20, me matematizimin e logjik\u00ebs nga ana e mendimtar\u00ebve si George Boole, Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Alfred Tarski dhe Kurt Godel, \u00ebsht\u00eb e qart\u00eb se Kanti e kishte krejt gabim. Por, ai e kishte poashtu gabim t\u00eb mendonte se nuk kishte pasur progres q\u00eb nga koha e Aristotelit. Sipas\u00a0Nj\u00eb Histori e Logjik\u00ebs Formale [A History of Formal Logic]<\/em>\u00a0(1961) nga i shquari J M Bochenski, periudhat e arta p\u00ebr logjik\u00ebn ishin n\u00eb koh\u00ebn e Greqis\u00eb s\u00eb lasht\u00eb, n\u00eb periudh\u00ebn e skolastik\u00ebs mesjetare, dhe n\u00eb periudh\u00ebn matematikore t\u00eb shekujve 19 dhe 20. (P\u00ebrgjat\u00eb k\u00ebtij shkrimi, fokusi \u00ebsht\u00eb mbi traditat logjike q\u00eb u shfaq\u00ebn kundrejt prapavij\u00ebs s\u00eb logjik\u00ebs s\u00eb Greqis\u00eb s\u00eb lasht\u00eb. Pra, logjika indiane dhe kineze nuk jan\u00eb t\u00eb p\u00ebrfshira, por logjika mesjetare arabe, \u00ebsht\u00eb.)<\/p>\n

P\u00ebrse Kanti nuk e p\u00ebrfilli tradit\u00ebn skolastike? Dhe, par\u00eb p\u00ebrgjith\u00ebsisht, si shpjegohet \u2018r\u00ebnia\u2019 e logjik\u00ebs pas periudh\u00ebs skolastike? Edhe pse n\u00eb epok\u00ebn moderne logjika mbeti pjes\u00eb e r\u00ebnd\u00ebsishme e planit m\u00ebsimor, n\u00eb at\u00eb koh\u00eb nuk kishte ndonj\u00eb zbulim thelb\u00ebsor q\u00eb ia vlen t\u00eb p\u00ebrmendet (me p\u00ebrjashtimin e disa zhvillimeve n\u00eb shekullin e 17-t\u00eb, nga Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz). N\u00eb fakt, shum\u00eb prej arritjeve skolastike u humb\u00ebn, dhe logjika e m\u00ebsuar gjat\u00eb k\u00ebsaj periudhe (ajo s\u00eb cil\u00ebs i referohet Kanti) ishte n\u00eb t\u00eb shumt\u00ebn rudimentare. Th\u00ebn\u00eb t\u00eb drejt\u00ebn, r\u00ebnia e logjik\u00ebs skolastike nuk ndodhi p\u00ebrnj\u00ebher\u00eb, e n\u00eb disa rajone (p.sh., Spanj\u00eb) puna inovative n\u00eb tradit\u00ebn skolastike vazhdonte t\u00eb shfaqej deri n\u00eb shekullin e 16-t\u00eb. Megjithat\u00eb, th\u00ebn\u00eb n\u00eb p\u00ebrgjith\u00ebsi, logjika skolastike u b\u00eb gjithnj\u00eb e m\u00eb pak e spikatur pas p\u00ebrfundimit t\u00eb Mesjet\u00ebs, p\u00ebrpos p\u00ebr q\u00ebllime edukative n\u00eb universitete (por p\u00ebrs\u00ebri, vet\u00ebm n\u00eb versione t\u00eb t\u00ebholluara).<\/p>\n

Kishte shum\u00eb shkaqe q\u00eb shkaktuan r\u00ebnien e logjik\u00ebs skolastike. Mbase m\u00eb i famshmi prej tyre, qe kritika e r\u00ebnd\u00eb prej autor\u00ebve rilindas si Lorenzo Valla. K\u00ebta mendimtar\u00eb vajtonin munges\u00ebn e aplikueshm\u00ebris\u00eb s\u00eb logjik\u00ebs skolastike. Valla, p\u00ebr shembull, i shihte silogjizmat \u2013 argumentet e p\u00ebrb\u00ebra nga dy premisa dhe nj\u00eb p\u00ebrfundim, ku t\u00eb gjithat prej tyre jan\u00eb t\u00eb form\u00ebs \u2018Disa\/T\u00eb gjitha\/Asnj\u00eb A (nuk) \u00ebsht\u00eb B\u2019, premisat e s\u00eb cilave k\u00ebrkojn\u00eb t\u00eb v\u00ebrtet\u00ebn e p\u00ebrfundimit \u2013 si nj\u00eb tip artificial i t\u00eb arsyetuarit, i padobish\u00ebm p\u00ebr orator\u00ebt p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb t\u00eb qenit shum\u00eb larg nga m\u00ebnyrat e natyrshme t\u00eb t\u00eb folurit dhe t\u00eb argumentuarit. Ata e kritikuan ashp\u00ebr latinishten e sh\u00ebmtuar, kaba, artificiale dhe tejet teknike t\u00eb autor\u00ebve skoloastik\u00eb, dhe arsyetuan p\u00ebr nj\u00eb kthim drejt latinishtes klasike s\u00eb Ciceronit dhe Virgjilit. N\u00eb t\u00eb shumt\u00ebn, k\u00ebta kritik\u00eb nuk i p\u00ebrkisnin sistemit universitar, ku n\u00eb shekullin e 15-t\u00eb skolasticizmi ishte ende norma. Ndryshe, ata prireshin t\u00eb ishin sh\u00ebrbyes civil\u00eb, pra ishin t\u00eb p\u00ebrfshir\u00eb edhe n\u00eb politik\u00eb, n\u00eb administrat\u00eb dhe n\u00eb jet\u00ebn civile n\u00eb p\u00ebrgjith\u00ebsi. Ata ishin shum\u00eb m\u00eb shum\u00eb t\u00eb interesuar n\u00eb retorik\u00eb dhe bindje, se sa n\u00eb logjik\u00eb dhe demonstrim.<\/p>\n

Nj\u00eb arsye tjet\u00ebr pse logjika gradualisht e humbi spikatjen e saj n\u00eb periudh\u00ebn moderne ishte braktisja e m\u00ebnyrave dominante dialektike t\u00eb k\u00ebrkimit intelektual. Nj\u00eb pasazh i Rene Descartes-it \u2013 po, ai tipi q\u00eb krijoi nj\u00eb sistem t\u00eb t\u00ebr\u00eb filozofik duke ndenjur i vet\u00ebm pran\u00eb zjarrit, i veshur me k\u00ebmish\u00eb nate \u2013 p\u00ebrfaq\u00ebson k\u00ebt\u00eb ndryshim n\u00eb nj\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb ve\u00e7an\u00ebrisht prek\u00ebse. Duke folur lidhur me at\u00eb se si duhet t\u00eb vazhdohet me edukimin e nj\u00eb nx\u00ebn\u00ebsi t\u00eb ri, te\u00a0Parimet e Filozofis\u00eb [Principles of Philosophy]<\/em>\u00a0(1644) ai shkruan:<\/p>\n

Pastaj, ai duhet t\u00eb m\u00ebsoj\u00eb logjik\u00eb. Nuk e kam fjal\u00ebn p\u00ebr logjik\u00ebn e Shkollave, se th\u00ebn\u00eb tro\u00e7, kjo nuk \u00ebsht\u00eb asgj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr pos dialektik\u00eb q\u00eb m\u00ebson m\u00ebnyrat se si t\u2019iu parashtrohet t\u00eb tjer\u00ebve at\u00eb q\u00eb tashm\u00eb di, apo madje edhe se si t\u00eb predikohet pa menduar mir\u00eb rreth gj\u00ebrave t\u00eb cilat nuk i di. N\u00eb vend t\u00eb k\u00ebsaj, e kam fjal\u00ebn p\u00ebr logjik\u00ebn q\u00eb na m\u00ebson se si t\u00eb drejtojm\u00eb arsyen kah q\u00ebllimin i zbulimit t\u00eb t\u00eb v\u00ebrtetave p\u00ebr t\u00eb cilat ne jemi ende injorant\u00eb.<\/em><\/p>\n

Descartes-i i bie n\u00eb t\u00eb kur pohon se logjika e Shkollave (logjika skolastike) nuk \u00ebsht\u00eb logjik\u00eb e zbulimit. Q\u00ebllimi i saj kryesor \u00ebsht\u00eb justifikimi dhe parashtrimi, q\u00eb ka kuptim posa\u00e7\u00ebrisht duke marr\u00eb parasysh prapavij\u00ebn e praktikave dialektike, ku bashk\u00ebbiseduesit shpjegojn\u00eb dhe debatojn\u00eb p\u00ebr gj\u00ebrat q\u00eb tashm\u00eb i din\u00eb. N\u00eb t\u00eb v\u00ebrtet\u00eb, gati p\u00ebrgjat\u00eb t\u00ebr\u00eb historis\u00eb s\u00eb logjik\u00ebs, si n\u00eb Greqin\u00eb e Lasht\u00eb dhe n\u00eb tradit\u00ebn mesjetare latine, \u2018dialektika\u2019 dhe \u2018logjika\u2019 merreshin si sinonime.<\/p>\n

Deri te koha e Descartesit, aplikimi kryesor i teorive logjike ishte qe t\u2019iu m\u00ebsohej student\u00ebve t\u00eb performojn\u00eb mir\u00eb n\u00eb debate dhe polemika, dhe se si t\u00eb teorizojn\u00eb mbi vetit\u00eb logjike t\u00eb asaj se \u00e7ka rrjedh nga \u00e7ka, aq sa kjo \u00ebsht\u00eb komponent\u00eb thelb\u00ebsore e praktikave t\u00eb tilla argumentative. \u00cbsht\u00eb e v\u00ebrtete q\u00eb t\u00eb gjith\u00eb e mendonin logjik\u00ebn n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb: Thoma Akuini, p\u00ebr shembull, thoshte q\u00eb logjika ka t\u00eb b\u00ebj\u00eb me \u2018q\u00ebllimet e dyta\u2019, af\u00ebrsisht ato q\u00eb ne i quajm\u00eb koncepte t\u00eb rendit t\u00eb dyt\u00eb, apo koncepte t\u00eb koncepteve. Por edhe deri n\u00eb fund t\u00eb shekullit t\u00eb 16t\u00eb, teologu spanjoll Domingo de Soto do shkruante me vet\u00ebbesim se \u2018dialektika \u00ebsht\u00eb arti i shkenc\u00ebs dhe diskutimit\u2019.<\/p>\n

Lidhja e ngusht\u00eb mes logjik\u00ebs tradicionale dhe praktikave t\u00eb debatit, daton qysh nga periudha klasike Helene. Veprimtaria intelektuale at\u00ebher\u00eb ishte thelb\u00ebsisht nj\u00eb \u00e7\u00ebshtje dialogore, si\u00e7 shihet te dialog\u00ebt e Platonit. N\u00eb k\u00ebta dialog\u00eb, Sokrati angazhohet rregullisht n\u00eb praktik\u00ebn e p\u00ebrg\u00ebnjeshtrimit (elenchus<\/em>), q\u00eb konsiston n\u00eb nj\u00eb shk\u00ebmbim t\u00eb pyetjeve dhe p\u00ebrgjigjeve n\u00eb t\u00eb cilat bashk\u00ebbiseduesit do t\u00eb p\u00ebrfundonin s\u00eb pohuari t\u00eb kund\u00ebrt\u00ebn e asaj \u00e7far\u00eb kishin deklaruar n\u00eb fillim, n\u00eb baz\u00eb t\u00eb p\u00ebrgjigjeve q\u00eb kishin dh\u00ebn\u00eb rrug\u00ebs. Dhe dy prej teksteve logjike t\u00eb Aristotelit,\u00a0Temat [Topics]\u00a0<\/em>dhe\u00a0P\u00ebrg\u00ebnjeshtrime Sofiste [Sophistical Refutations]<\/em>, kan\u00eb t\u00eb b\u00ebjn\u00eb shprehurazi me praktikat dialektike dhe p\u00ebrmbajn\u00eb nj\u00eb disiplin\u00eb ushtarake t\u00eb k\u00ebtyre praktikave me an\u00eb t\u00eb nj\u00eb p\u00ebrshkrimi abstrakt t\u00eb cil\u00ebsive t\u00eb tyre strukturore.<\/p>\n

Analitika Paraprake [Prior Analytics<\/em>], m\u00eb abstrakti nga tekstet logjike t\u00eb Aristotelit, \u00ebsht\u00eb i mbushur me fjalor dialektik dhe m\u00eb referenca p\u00ebr praktikat e debatit. P\u00ebr shembull, ai e shqyrton \u00e7\u00ebshtjen e premisave t\u00eb drejta p\u00ebr p\u00ebrfundimin q\u00eb dikush d\u00ebshiron t\u00eb arrij\u00eb. Teknikat q\u00eb diskutohen jan\u00eb posa\u00e7\u00ebrisht t\u00eb dobishme n\u00eb debatim. N\u00ebse nj\u00eb diskutuese do q\u00eb t\u00eb bind\u00eb bashk\u00ebbiseduesit e saj lidhur me teorem\u00ebn P, ajo k\u00ebrkon teorema t\u00eb tjera t\u00eb cilat p\u00ebrfshijn\u00eb P, dhe t\u00eb cilat bashk\u00ebbiseduesit kan\u00eb shum\u00eb gjas\u00eb q\u00eb t\u2019i pranojn\u00eb. Me t\u00eb pranuar T dhe Q, t\u00eb cilat s\u00eb bashku p\u00ebrfshijn\u00eb P, bashk\u00ebbiseduesi pastaj shtr\u00ebngohet q\u00eb t\u00eb pajtohet me P. Sheshit, si\u00e7 do t\u00eb ankohej m\u00eb von\u00eb Descartesi, kjo \u00ebsht\u00eb nj\u00eb qasje q\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb m\u00eb e p\u00ebrshtatshmja p\u00ebr t\u00eb argumentuar dhe p\u00ebr t\u00eb bindur t\u00eb tjer\u00ebt, por jo p\u00ebr t\u00eb zbuluar t\u00eb v\u00ebrteta t\u00eb reja.<\/p>\n

Spikatja e dialektik\u00ebs vazhdoi deri n\u00eb lasht\u00ebsin\u00eb e von\u00eb. Prej periudh\u00ebs mesjetare latine, fokusi mbi debatin u b\u00eb edhe m\u00eb i shprehur kur u institucionalizua me shfaqjen asaj q\u00eb njihet si \u2018diskutimi skolastik\u2019. Diskutimi skolastik \u00ebsht\u00eb nj\u00eb procedur\u00eb e formalizuar dhe rigoroze e debatit, q\u00eb bazohet mbi rregulla bukur t\u00eb rrepta. Ai ishte frym\u00ebzuar prej metodave argumentative t\u00eb Greqis\u00eb s\u00eb lasht\u00eb, dhe u zhvillua edhe m\u00eb tej n\u00eb manastiret e Mesjet\u00ebs s\u00eb hershme (mbase p\u00ebr befasi, duke pasur parasysh reputacionin e jet\u00ebs kontemplative). Ai mb\u00ebrriti majat n\u00eb shekullin e 12t\u00eb me lindjen dhe zgjerimin e universiteteve, ku u b\u00eb edhe metoda kryesore e t\u00eb m\u00ebsuarit, p\u00ebrkrah komentimit tekstual. Dhe ndikimi i diskutimeve shkonte p\u00ebrtej universiteteve, duke u zgjeruar n\u00eb sfera t\u00eb shumta t\u00eb jet\u00ebs kulturore. Diskutimet ishin nj\u00ebra nga qasjet kryesore ndaj k\u00ebrkimit intelektual n\u00eb Evrop\u00ebn Mesjetare.<\/p>\n

Nj\u00eb diskutim [disputation] fillon me nj\u00eb deklarat\u00eb, dhe pastaj vazhdon me t\u00eb shqyrtuarit e argumenteve p\u00ebr dhe kund\u00ebr deklarat\u00ebs. Kjo procedur\u00eb sjell n\u00eb mendje loj\u00ebn e pyetjeve dhe p\u00ebrgjigjeve t\u00eb p\u00ebrshkruara nga Aristoteli te\u00a0Temat<\/em>, ku deklarata fillestare mund t\u00eb lexohet si nj\u00eb pyetje: \u2018X, po ose jo?\u2019 Kjo \u00ebsht\u00eb n\u00eb thelb nj\u00eb praktik\u00eb dialogore ku marrin pjes\u00eb dy persona q\u00eb nuk pajtohen p\u00ebr nj\u00eb deklarat\u00eb t\u00eb dh\u00ebn\u00eb dhe q\u00eb prodhojn\u00eb argumente p\u00ebr t\u00eb mbrojtur pozitat e tyre respektive, edhe at\u00ebher\u00eb kur t\u00eb dy rolet mund t\u00eb luhen nga nj\u00eb dhe i vetmi person. Q\u00ebllimi mund t\u00eb jet\u00eb thjesht p\u00ebr t\u00eb bindur bashk\u00ebbiseduesin tuaj apo publikun, por implikimi \u00ebsht\u00eb se zakonisht arrihet di\u00e7ka tjet\u00ebr, m\u00eb e thell\u00eb, si p\u00ebr shembull t\u2019i afrohesh s\u00eb v\u00ebrtet\u00ebs lidhur me \u00e7\u00ebshtjen n\u00eb fjal\u00eb, p\u00ebrmes shqyrtimit t\u00eb k\u00ebsaj \u00e7\u00ebshtjeje prej k\u00ebndeve t\u00eb ndryshme.<\/p>\n

Intelektual\u00ebt mesjetar\u00eb p\u00ebrfshiheshin n\u00eb diskutime \u2018t\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdrejta\u2019 si privatisht, mes profesorit dhe studentit, dhe si ngjarje t\u00eb m\u00ebdha publike ku merrte pjes\u00eb i gjith\u00eb komuniteti universitar. Por, struktura e p\u00ebrgjithshme p\u00ebrdoret gj\u00ebr\u00ebsisht poashtu n\u00eb disa prej shkrimeve m\u00eb t\u00eb spikatura t\u00eb autor\u00ebve mesjetar\u00eb (disa prej t\u00eb cil\u00ebve, n\u00eb fakt jan\u00eb versione t\u00eb shkruara t\u00eb diskutimeve q\u00eb kishin ndodhur v\u00ebrtet, t\u00eb njohura si\u00a0reportatio<\/em>). Librat shkollor\u00eb t\u00eb logjik\u00ebs ofronin trajnimin e nevojsh\u00ebm p\u00ebr t\u00eb shk\u00eblqyer n\u00eb artin e diskutimit, me kapituj mbi idet\u00eb e gabuara, mbi pasoj\u00ebn, struktur\u00ebn logjike dhe dometh\u00ebnien e teoremave, dhe mbi\u00a0\u201cobligations<\/em>\u201d (diskutime tejet t\u00eb stilizuara), prej ku t\u00eb gjitha jan\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdrejt relevante p\u00ebr artin e diskutimit (edhe pse disa prej tyre mund t\u00eb p\u00ebrdoren edhe p\u00ebr q\u00ebllime t\u00eb tjera, si interpretimi tekstual dhe komentimi). Kjo prani e gjithanshme e diskutimit dhe zhanreve t\u00eb af\u00ebrme \u00ebsht\u00eb p\u00ebrshkruar si \u2018institucionalizim i konfliktit\u2019.<\/p>\n

Diskutimet qen\u00eb kryesisht t\u00eb lidhura me kultur\u00ebn universitare t\u00eb Mesjet\u00ebs s\u00eb von\u00eb. N\u00eb pasazhin kuptimplot\u00eb t\u00eb p\u00ebrmendur m\u00eb lart, Descartes-i flet p\u00ebr \u2018logjik\u00ebn e Shkollave\u2019, duke kritikuar k\u00ebshtu t\u00ebr\u00eb qasjen ndaj edukimit t\u00eb bazuar n\u00eb diskutime dhe logjik\u00ebn mbi t\u00eb cil\u00ebn nd\u00ebrtohen ato. Mendimtar\u00ebt e Rilindjes kritikonin skolasticizmin p\u00ebr munges\u00ebn e angazhimit n\u00eb \u00e7\u00ebshtjet q\u00eb ishin me interes p\u00ebr shoq\u00ebrin\u00eb e gjer\u00eb, dhe ata mbanin oratorin p\u00ebr intelektual ideal para debatuesit skolastik. Formalizmi i tep\u00ebrt i diskutimeve skolastike u b\u00eb subjekt i p\u00ebrgojimit dhe p\u00ebrqeshjes, si p\u00ebr shembull te vepra e\u00a0Molierit Pacienti imagjinar [Le Malade imaginaire]<\/em>\u00a0(1673), ku pedanti dhe disi i pamendi Thomas Diafoirus p\u00ebrdor fjalorin disputacional p\u00ebr t\u00eb argumentuar p\u00ebr dashurin\u00eb:<\/p>\n

Distinguo,<\/em>\u00a0Mademoiselle; p\u00ebr gjith\u00e7ka q\u00eb nuk ka t\u00eb b\u00ebj\u00eb me posedimin e personit q\u00eb do,\u00a0concedo,<\/em>\u00a0e pranoj; por p\u00ebr at\u00eb q\u00eb e merr parasysh k\u00ebt\u00eb posedim,\u00a0nego,<\/em>\u00a0e mohoj.<\/p>\n

Megjithat\u00eb, r\u00ebnia e kultur\u00ebs disputacionale nuk ishte i vetmi shkak i vdekjes legale t\u00eb logjik\u00ebs skolastike. Logjika skolastike shihej gjithashtu \u2013 me te drejt\u00eb a jo \u2013 si e lidhur me konceptimet aristoteliane p\u00ebr gjuh\u00ebn dhe metafizik\u00ebn, t\u00eb cilat po ashtu ran\u00eb n\u00eb sy t\u00eb keq n\u00eb agimin e epok\u00ebs moderne, me ngritjen e paradigm\u00ebs s\u00eb re shkencore. P\u00ebrkund\u00ebr t\u00eb gjitha k\u00ebtyre, diskutimet [disputacionet] vazhduan t\u00eb praktikohen p\u00ebr nj\u00eb koh\u00eb n\u00eb kontekste universitare t\u00eb caktuara – \u00e7\u2019\u00ebsht\u00eb e v\u00ebrteta, sot ato frymojn\u00eb n\u00eb karakterin ceremonial t\u00eb mbrojtjes s\u00eb doktoraturave. Por \u00e7\u00ebshtja \u00ebsht\u00eb se pati nj\u00eb ndryshim dramatik n\u00eb stilin filozofik t\u00eb periudh\u00ebs s\u00eb hershme moderne: krahasoni tekstet kryesore t\u00eb mendimit mesjetar,\u00a0Summa Thelogica<\/em>\u00a0t\u00eb Thoma Akuinit, q\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb tejp\u00ebrtej disputacional, me\u00a0Meditimet mbi Filozofin\u00eb e Par\u00eb [Meditations on First Philosophy<\/em>] nga Descartes, nj\u00eb lib\u00ebr ku argumentohet p\u00ebrmes paragraf\u00ebve t\u00eb gjat\u00eb n\u00eb vet\u00ebn e par\u00eb njej\u00ebs. Me rr\u00ebnimin e diskutimit, ndryshoi natyra e k\u00ebrkimit intelektual.<\/p>\n

Po ashtu nuk \u00ebsht\u00eb rast\u00ebsi q\u00eb rr\u00ebnimi i kultur\u00ebs disputacionale rastisi af\u00ebrsisht me futjen n\u00eb p\u00ebrdorim n\u00eb Europ\u00eb t\u00eb teknikave t\u00eb reja t\u00eb printimit nga Johannes Gutenberg, rreth vitit 1440. Para k\u00ebsaj, librat ishin produkte t\u00eb rralla, dhe edukimi b\u00ebhej gati ekskluzivisht p\u00ebrmes kontaktit oral mes profesor\u00ebve dhe nx\u00ebn\u00ebsve n\u00eb form\u00ebn e ligj\u00ebratave shpjeguese ku librat lexoheshin me z\u00eb, diskutimeve t\u00eb llojeve t\u00eb ndryshme, e shqyrtimeve. Af\u00ebr dy shekuj m\u00eb von\u00eb, n\u00eb koh\u00ebn e Descartesit, ideja q\u00eb nj\u00eb person mund t\u00eb edukoj\u00eb vetveten p\u00ebrmes librave (q\u00eb do t\u00eb ishte di\u00e7ka e paparamenduar para disponueshm\u00ebris\u00eb s\u00eb gjer\u00eb t\u00eb librave t\u00eb shtypur) ishte tashm\u00eb e p\u00ebrforcuar.<\/p>\n

P\u00ebr m\u00eb tep\u00ebr, si\u00e7 sugjerohet nga pasazhi i Descartesit, vet termi \u2018logjik\u00eb\u2019 tash p\u00ebrdorej p\u00ebr di\u00e7ka tjet\u00ebr prej asaj q\u00eb kishin menduar skolastik\u00ebt. N\u00eb vend t\u00eb k\u00ebsaj, autor\u00ebt e hersh\u00ebm modern\u00eb theksojn\u00eb rolin e risis\u00eb dhe zbulimit individual, si\u00e7 sh\u00ebmb\u00ebllehet nga libri me ndikim\u00a0Port-Royal Logic\u00a0<\/em>(1662), q\u00eb, n\u00eb themel, \u00ebsht\u00eb versioni logjik i Kartezianizmit, i bazuar n\u00eb konceptimet e Descartesit p\u00ebr operacionet mendore dhe p\u00ebr primacin\u00eb e mendimit mbi gjuh\u00ebn. Sido q\u00eb t\u00eb jet\u00eb, nga perspektiva e shekullit t\u00eb 21-t\u00eb, logjika skolastike mesjetare \u00ebsht\u00eb mbase m\u00eb meritore p\u00ebr titullin \u2018logjik\u00eb\u2019 se sa puna e b\u00ebr\u00eb n\u00eb periudh\u00ebn e hershme moderne n\u00ebn k\u00ebt\u00eb titull, duke qen\u00eb se i afrohet m\u00eb shum\u00eb nivelit t\u00eb rigorozitetit dhe sofistikimit formal q\u00eb filloi t\u00eb asociohej me logjik\u00ebn q\u00eb nga fundi i shekullit t\u00eb 19t\u00eb e tutje.<\/p>\n

N\u00eb periudh\u00ebn moderne, nj\u00eb num\u00ebr i filozof\u00ebve filluan ta shohin natyr\u00ebn e logjik\u00ebs n\u00eb terma t\u00eb fakulteteve t\u00eb mendjes [faculties of mind]. Th\u00ebn\u00eb t\u00eb drejt\u00ebn, kjo \u00ebsht\u00eb p\u00ebrs\u00ebri nj\u00eb tem\u00eb e pranishme n\u00eb mendimin skolastik mesjetar (n\u00eb vepr\u00ebn e autorit t\u00eb shekullit t\u00eb 14-t\u00eb Pierre d\u2019Ailly, p\u00ebr shembull), por n\u00eb periudh\u00ebn e hershme moderne u b\u00eb pik\u00ebpamje dominante. Kjo na kthen te Kanti, p\u00ebr t\u00eb cilin logjika i p\u00ebrkiste mbi t\u00eb gjitha strukturave t\u00eb mendimit si t\u00eb tilla, dhe operacioneve t\u00eb mendjes, si\u00e7 v\u00ebrehet te interpretimi i tij i kategorive aristoteliane. P\u00ebr Kantin, konceptet themelore logjike, sikurse t\u00eb nxjerrit e inferenc\u00ebs nga premisat te konkluzioni, asociohen me operacionet e brendshme t\u00eb mendjes, m\u00eb p\u00ebrpara se me l\u00ebvizjet n\u00eb nj\u00eb situat\u00eb argumentative.<\/p>\n

P\u00ebrderisa pik\u00ebpamjet e Kantit mbi logjik\u00ebn ishin ende me ndikim, n\u00eb shekullin e 19t\u00eb, logjika nd\u00ebrmori edhe nj\u00eb kthes\u00eb tjet\u00ebr, k\u00ebt\u00eb her\u00eb drejt matematik\u00ebs. Te\u00a0Analiza Matematikore e Logjik\u00ebs [The Mathematical Analysis of Logic]\u00a0<\/em>(1847), Boole, nj\u00eb matematikan anglez shum\u00eb inovativ, inauguroi nj\u00eb program hulumtimi t\u00ebr\u00ebsisht t\u00eb ri. Kjo qasje kishte pararend\u00ebs n\u00eb shekullin e 17-t\u00eb, posa\u00e7\u00ebrisht por jo vet\u00ebm Leibnizin. (Thomas Hobbes thoshte poashtu se i gjith\u00eb t\u00eb menduarit \u00ebsht\u00eb \u00e7\u00ebshtje p\u00ebrllogaritjeje.) Sidoqoft\u00eb, Boole duket t\u00eb ket\u00eb qen\u00eb kryesisht i pavet\u00ebdijsh\u00ebm p\u00ebr k\u00ebto zhvillime t\u00eb hershme, meq\u00eb shumic\u00ebn e edukimit t\u00eb tij t\u00eb hersh\u00ebm e kishte b\u00ebr\u00eb vet, duke p\u00ebrfshir\u00eb edhe matematik\u00ebn e p\u00ebrparuar.<\/p>\n

Boole zhvilloi nj\u00eb metod\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb \u2018llogaritur\u2019 se a ishte i drejt\u00eb nj\u00eb argument apo jo, q\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb n\u00eb kontrast me qasjen e bazuar n\u00eb katalog\u00eb t\u00eb logjik\u00ebs tradicionale. Vepra e Boole nisi at\u00eb q\u00eb njihet si algjebra e tradit\u00ebs logjike, dhe shtyu iden\u00eb e p\u00ebrdorimit t\u00eb simbolizmit matematikor n\u00eb lidhje me logjik\u00ebn. Boole po i p\u00ebrgjigjej interesit n\u00eb rritje p\u00ebr logjik\u00ebn mes matematikan\u00ebve, dhe n\u00eb mendimin e tij ai mbeti kryesisht Kantian, por vepra e tij p\u00ebrfaq\u00ebson pa dyshim nj\u00eb kthes\u00eb t\u00eb madhe n\u00eb historin\u00eb e logjik\u00ebs: nisi periudh\u00ebn matematikore q\u00eb ve\u00e7ohet nga Bochenski si nj\u00ebra prej periudhave m\u00eb pjellore n\u00eb historin\u00eb e logjik\u00ebs.<\/p>\n

Figura tjet\u00ebr vigane e logjik\u00ebs s\u00eb shekullit t\u00eb 19-t\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb Frege. Profesor i matematik\u00ebs n\u00eb qytetin gjerman t\u00eb Jen\u00ebs, n\u00eb vitet e para t\u00eb karrier\u00ebs s\u00eb tij ai punoi n\u00eb tema standarde matematikore sikurse gjeometria dhe analiza, por pastaj zhvilloi interese filozofike edhe pa pasur ndonj\u00eb edukim formal filozofik. P\u00ebrderisa Boole (t\u00eb cilin Frege e kritikonte ashp\u00ebr) p\u00ebrdorte matematik\u00ebn p\u00ebr t\u00eb analizuar logjik\u00ebn (silogjizmat), projekti i Freges ishte q\u00eb t\u00eb p\u00ebrdorte logjik\u00ebn p\u00ebr t\u00eb analizuar matematik\u00ebn. M\u00eb n\u00eb ve\u00e7anti, Frege donte q\u00eb t\u00eb t\u2019i jepte matematik\u00ebs themele t\u00eb kulluara logjike, nj\u00eb p\u00ebrpjekje q\u00eb u b\u00eb e njohur si programi logjicist. Ai synonte q\u00eb t\u00eb derivonte t\u00eb gjitha t\u00eb v\u00ebrtetat e aritmetik\u00ebs nga parimet e kulluara logjike (aksiomat), duke p\u00ebrdorur vet\u00ebm rregulla logjike. Me k\u00ebt\u00eb q\u00ebllim, Freges iu desh ta \u2018matematizonte\u2019 logjik\u00ebn n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb q\u00eb ta b\u00ebnte m\u00eb t\u00eb p\u00ebrshtatshme p\u00ebr programin logjicist, posa\u00e7\u00ebrisht duke marr\u00eb nocionin matematik t\u00eb funksionit si gurthemel t\u00eb sistemit t\u00eb tij. I inspiruar haptazi prej tradit\u00ebs s\u00eb gjuh\u00ebve artificiale t\u00eb shekullit t\u00eb 17-t\u00eb (vepr\u00ebs s\u00eb Leibnizit n\u00eb ve\u00e7anti), Frege sajoi nj\u00eb simbole krejt t\u00eb reja p\u00ebr sistemin e tij, t\u00eb cilin e quajti \u2018koncept-skript\u00eb\u2019 (ose Begriffsshrift). N\u00eb parafjal\u00ebn e librit t\u00eb tij Begriffsschrift (1879), ai ofron nj\u00eb p\u00ebrshkrim ndri\u00e7ues lidhur me motivet e prezantimit t\u00eb k\u00ebsaj gjuhe t\u00eb re:<\/p>\n

Hapi im fillestar ishte p\u00ebrpjekja p\u00ebr t\u00eb reduktuar konceptin e renditjes n\u00eb sekuenca te ajo e pasoj\u00ebs logjike, n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb q\u00eb t\u00eb nga aty t\u00eb vazhdoj drejt konceptit t\u00eb numrit. P\u00ebr t\u00eb parandaluar q\u00eb \u00e7ka do intuitive t\u00eb dep\u00ebrtoj\u00eb pa u v\u00ebn\u00eb re, mua m\u2019u desh t\u00eb b\u00ebj\u00eb t\u00eb gjith\u00eb p\u00ebrpjekjet e mundshme p\u00ebr t\u00eb mos l\u00ebn\u00eb zbraz\u00ebtira n\u00eb zinxhirin e inferencave . Duke tentuar q\u00eb t\u2019i p\u00ebrgjigjem k\u00ebsaj k\u00ebrkese n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00ebn m\u00eb strikte t\u00eb mundshme, un\u00eb pash\u00eb se pap\u00ebrshtatshm\u00ebria e gjuh\u00ebs po b\u00ebhej penges\u00eb; pa marr\u00eb parasysh se sa t\u00eb ngath\u00ebta shprehjet q\u00eb isha i gatsh\u00ebm t\u2019i pranoj, un\u00eb isha gjithnj\u00eb e m\u00eb pak n\u00eb gjendje, p\u00ebrderisa relacionet b\u00ebheshin gjithnj\u00eb e m\u00eb t\u00eb nd\u00ebrlikuara, q\u00eb t\u00eb mb\u00ebrrij precizitetin q\u00eb e k\u00ebrkonte q\u00ebllimi im. Kjo defi\u00e7ienc\u00eb m\u00eb \u00e7oi te ideja e koncept-skript\u00ebs s\u00eb tanishme. Prandaj, q\u00ebllimi i saj kryesor \u00ebsht\u00eb q\u00eb t\u00eb na mund\u00ebsoj\u00eb testin m\u00eb t\u00eb besuesh\u00ebm p\u00ebr validitetin e nj\u00eb zinxhiri inferencash dhe q\u00eb t\u00eb v\u00eb n\u00eb dukje \u00e7do pandehje q\u00eb mund t\u00eb kaloj\u00eb pa u v\u00ebn\u00eb re, n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb q\u00eb t\u00eb hulumtohet origjina e saj.<\/em><\/p>\n

Ideja se gjuha e zakonshme \u00ebsht\u00eb shprehimisht e pap\u00ebrshtatshme p\u00ebr llogari t\u00eb t\u00eb arsyetuarit matematikor (madje edhe logjik) u b\u00eb nj\u00eb tem\u00eb e gjithpranishme n\u00eb tradit\u00ebn e nisur t\u00eb logjik\u00ebs matematikore, aq sa edhe vet termi \u2018logjik\u00eb simbolike\u2019 u b\u00eb sinonim me k\u00ebt\u00eb tradit\u00eb.<\/p>\n

T\u00eb b\u00ebsh logjik\u00eb tash, thjesht kishte kuptimin e t\u00eb punuarit me simbole speciale, jo me fjal\u00eb t\u00eb zakonshme. N\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb aspekt, ia vlen t\u00eb vihet re se autor\u00ebt humanist\u00eb kishin kritikuar latinishten e logjicien\u00ebve skolastik\u00eb pik\u00ebrisht se ishte \u2018tep\u00ebr artificiale\u2019, e madje edhe gjuha greke mbi t\u00eb cil\u00ebn mb\u00ebshtetet Aristoteli p\u00ebr logjik\u00ebn silogjiste \u00ebsht\u00eb e regjimentuar dhe e zhvendosur prej formave t\u00eb zakonshme t\u00eb t\u00eb folurit n\u00eb at\u00eb koh\u00eb. N\u00eb nj\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb, mbase nj\u00eb shkall\u00eb e caktuar e \u2018artificialitetit\u2019 q\u00ebndron n\u00eb thelbin e logjik\u00ebs p\u00ebrgjat\u00eb historis\u00eb, q\u00eb operon n\u00eb nivele t\u00eb abstraksionit q\u00eb jan\u00eb n\u00eb kund\u00ebrshtim me p\u00ebrdorimin e zakonsh\u00ebm t\u00eb gjuh\u00ebs.<\/p>\n

Frege nuk ishte i vetmi q\u00eb punonte mbi themelet e matematik\u00ebs me vegla logjike. \u00c7\u2019\u00ebsht\u00eb e v\u00ebrteta, me fundin e shekullit 19-t\u00eb kishte shum\u00eb projekte t\u00eb r\u00ebnd\u00ebsishme p\u00ebr aksiomatizimin e disa pjes\u00ebve t\u00eb matematik\u00ebs q\u00eb udh\u00ebhiqeshin nga matematikan\u00eb t\u00eb shquar si Richard Dedekind, Giuseppe Peano, Oswald Veblen dhe David Hilbert. Por Frege qe i pari q\u00eb kuptoi se jo vet\u00ebm q\u00eb aksiomat mund t\u00eb shprehin n\u00eb terma logjike \u2013 vet rregullat e inferenc\u00ebs q\u00eb \u00e7ojn\u00eb nga aksiomat te t\u00eb v\u00ebrtetat e m\u00ebtejme k\u00ebrkojn\u00eb nj\u00eb trajtim rigoroz, po ashtu.<\/p>\n

Fatkeq\u00ebsisht, katedralja madh\u00ebshtore teorike e Freges q\u00ebndronte mbi themele t\u00eb brishta, sikurse u b\u00eb e ditur nga Russell me zbulimin e paradoksit q\u00eb mban emrin e tij. Sistemi logjicist i Freges b\u00ebn t\u00eb mundur ekzistenc\u00ebn e nj\u00eb p\u00ebrmbledhjeje q\u00eb edhe i p\u00ebrket edhe nuk i p\u00ebrket vetvetes \u2013 kontradikt\u00eb! (Nj\u00eb intepretim intuitiv i ides\u00eb qendrore n\u00eb paradoksin e Russellit, \u00ebsht\u00eb i ashtuqajturi paradoks i berberit: imagjinoni nj\u00eb berber q\u00eb rruan t\u00eb gjith\u00eb ata, dhe vet\u00ebm ata, t\u00eb cil\u00ebt nuk rruhen vet. Pyetja \u00ebsht\u00eb, a rruhet vet berberi? N\u00ebse po, at\u00ebher\u00eb jo; n\u00ebse jo, at\u00ebher\u00eb po.) Ishte me q\u00ebllimin e rigjetjes dhe zhvillimit t\u00eb m\u00ebtejsh\u00ebm t\u00eb programit logjicist, q\u00eb Russell dhe bashk\u00ebpun\u00ebtori i tij Alfred North Whitehead vazhduan drejt zhvillimit t\u00eb nj\u00eb sistemi monumental (dhe disi t\u00eb \u00e7rregullt) t\u00eb paraqitur n\u00eb\u00a0Principia Mathematica (1910)<\/em>. N\u00eb thelb, t\u00eb gjitha zhvillimet e m\u00ebdha n\u00eb logjik\u00eb n\u00eb shekullin e 20t\u00eb bazohen, drejtp\u00ebrdrejt ose jo, n\u00eb ekzistenc\u00ebn e Principia Mathematica.<\/p>\n

P\u00ebr t\u2019iu kthyer karakterizimit t\u00eb Bochenskit p\u00ebr tri periudhat madhore n\u00eb historin\u00eb e logjik\u00ebs, dy prej tyre, periudha e lasht\u00eb dhe periudha skolastike mesjetare, qen\u00eb t\u00eb lidhura ngusht\u00eb me iden\u00eb se aplikimi par\u00ebsor i logjik\u00ebs \u00ebsht\u00eb te praktikat e debatit, sikurse diskutimet dialektike. E treta prej tyre, p\u00ebr kontrast, sh\u00ebmb\u00ebllen nj\u00eb p\u00ebrsiatje krejt tjet\u00ebr p\u00ebr logjik\u00ebn, do t\u00eb thot\u00eb si deg\u00eb themeltare e matematik\u00ebs, dhe n\u00eb asnj\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb e lidhur me gjuh\u00ebt e zakonshme n\u00eb t\u00eb cilat zakonisht b\u00ebhen debatet. Boshll\u00ebku mes periudh\u00ebs s\u00eb dyt\u00eb dhe s\u00eb tret\u00eb mund t\u00eb shpjegohet nga rr\u00ebnimi i diskutimeve skolastike, dhe m\u00eb n\u00eb p\u00ebrgjith\u00ebsi nga r\u00ebnia e aristotelianizmit si nj\u00eb pik\u00ebpamje gjith\u00ebp\u00ebrfshir\u00ebse.<\/p>\n

Megjithat\u00eb, gjurm\u00ebt e origjin\u00ebs dialogore t\u00eb logjik\u00ebs vazhdojn\u00eb t\u00eb shihen n\u00eb zhvillimet e fundit, q\u00eb do t\u00eb thot\u00eb se t\u00eb marr\u00ebsh parasysh perspektivat dialogore dhe dialektike \u00ebsht\u00eb esenciale p\u00ebr t\u00eb kuptuar natyr\u00ebn e logjik\u00ebs madje edhe n\u00eb matematizimet e koh\u00ebs s\u00eb fundit \u2013 po ashtu sepse vet matematika \u00ebsht\u00eb nj\u00eb \u00e7\u00ebshtje dialogore. Historia e logjik\u00ebs po ashtu na b\u00ebn t\u00eb v\u00ebm\u00eb n\u00eb pyetje konceptimin tejet individualist t\u00eb dijes dhe t\u00eb jet\u00ebve tona kognitive t\u00eb cilat i kemi trash\u00ebguar prej Descartesit dhe t\u00eb tjer\u00ebve, dhe mbase p\u00ebr t\u00eb l\u00ebvizur drejt nj\u00eb vler\u00ebsimi m\u00eb t\u00eb madh p\u00ebr natyr\u00ebn shoq\u00ebrore n\u00eb thelb t\u00eb njohjes njer\u00ebzore.<\/p>\n

Catarina Dutilh Novaes \u00ebsht\u00eb profesore e filozofis\u00eb dhe Rosalind Franklin fellow n\u00eb Departamentin e Filozofis\u00eb Teorike n\u00eb Universitetin e Groningenit n\u00eb Holland\u00eb. Vepra e saj fokusohet n\u00eb filozofin\u00eb e logjik\u00ebs dhe matematik\u00ebs. Libri i saj i fundit \u00ebsht\u00eb Shoq\u00ebruesi i Cambridge-t p\u00ebr Logjik\u00ebn Mesjetare [ The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Logic] (2016).<\/em><\/p>\n

____________<\/p>\n

P\u00ebrktheu: Bardhi Bakija<\/p>\n

Artikulli origjinal\u00a0<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

A \u00ebsht\u00eb t\u00eb menduarit logjik m\u00ebnyr\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb zbuluar apo p\u00ebr t\u00eb debatuar? P\u00ebrgjigjet nga filozofia dhe matematika p\u00ebrkufizojn\u00eb dijen njer\u00ebzore Historia e logjik\u00ebs duhet t\u00eb jet\u00eb me interes p\u00ebr k\u00ebdo q\u00eb aspiron drejt t\u00eb menduarit q\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb korrekt, apo t\u00eb pakt\u00ebn i arsyesh\u00ebm. Ky ese ilustron qasjet e ndryshme ndaj k\u00ebrkimit intelektual dhe njohjes […]<\/p>","protected":false},"author":70,"featured_media":10611,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[14],"tags":[954,1322,1947],"ppma_author":[79],"class_list":["post-3991","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-kritike","tag-filozofi","tag-kritike","tag-logjika"],"authors":[{"term_id":79,"user_id":70,"is_guest":0,"slug":"catarina-dutil-novaes","display_name":"Catarina Dutilh Novaes","avatar_url":{"url":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/10\/download-1-4.jpg","url2x":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/10\/download-1-4.jpg"},"user_url":"","last_name":"Novaes","first_name":"Catarina Dutilh","description":""}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/sr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3991","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/sr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/sr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/sr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/70"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/sr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=3991"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/sr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3991\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":10612,"href":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/sr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3991\/revisions\/10612"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/sr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/10611"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/sr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3991"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/sr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=3991"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/sr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=3991"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sbunker.org\/sr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/ppma_author?post=3991"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}